Posts by Amber Coogan
Nine years of water sampling data from the Pioneer New England Shelf Array now Available through BCO-DMO
OOI’s collaboration with the Biological & Chemical Oceanography Data Management Office (BCO-DMO) continues to expand. A new dataset compiling all discrete water sampling data from the Pioneer New England Shelf (NES) Array from 2013 to 2022 has been archived and is now publicly accessible through BCO-DMO.
OOI and BCO-DMO launched this partnership in 2023 to make OOI water sampling data broadly accessible through both the BCO-DMO website and BCO-DMO’s ERDDAP server. BCO-DMO curates oceanographic data for public use in alignment with FAIR data principles, ensuring datasets are findable, accessible, interoperable, and reusable.
Distributing OOI water sampling data through BCO-DMO provides several key benefits. The cruise-by-cruise discrete data sheets are concatenated into a single dataset, assigned a Digital Object Identifier (DOI), and served via ERDDAP to enable both user-friendly browsing and machine-to-machine access. In addition, each dataset is accompanied by detailed descriptions of sampling and processing methods and includes README files for every contributing cruise.
With the addition of the Pioneer NES Array, BCO-DMO now hosts compiled OOI discrete water sampling datasets from each of the following arrays:
- Station Papa Array
- Irminger Sea Array
- Southern Ocean Array
- Argentine Basin Array
- Pioneer NES Array (newly added)
You can access each of these datasets through this BCO-DMO project record for all OOI Discrete CTD and Water Sampling Cruise Data, or from the BCO-DMO home page by selecting Projects and searching for “OOI Discrete CTD and Water Sampling Cruise Data.”
Figures 1 and 2 provide example plots generated from the nine-year Pioneer NES Array. A Python script (implemented in a Jupyter Notebook available here) was used to access the data from the BCO-DMO ERDDAP server, extract variables of interest, apply available quality control (QC) flags and visualize the data. Figure 1 shows profiles of selected variables for successive cruises to give a sense of the depth-time data coverage. Note that the sample depths are generally concentrated in the upper 200 meters of the water column at Pioneer NES since the OOI sampling goal is to validate instruments on the moorings rather than collect comprehensive profile data. Samples at depths greater than the maximum moored instrument depth of 450 m were collected to support mobile asset or collaborative cruise operations on the outer shelf. Figure 2 represents profile variability over time by overlaying all discrete observations for oxygen, salinity and nitrate with the color gradient representing the date of observations.
[caption id="attachment_37141" align="alignnone" width="512"] Figure 1. Profiles of oxygen, salinity, and nitrate at the OOI Coastal Pioneer New England Shelf (NES) Array from discrete bottle samples.[/caption]
[caption id="attachment_37142" align="alignnone" width="512"]
Figure 2. Temporal variability of oxygen, salinity, and nitrate from discrete bottle samples over 9 years depicted as overlaid profiles.[/caption]
The discrete water samples are collected in conjunction with standard CTD casts. For several variables (e.g. salinity, chlorophyll, oxygen) this allows comparison between CTD sensors and discrete samples at each depth where a Niskin bottle is closed. In Figure 3, discrete sample oxygen observations at the 3 coastal surface mooring sites of Pioneer NES in Fall 2021 exhibit good agreement with the CTD rosette-mounted SBE 43 Dissolved Oxygen Sensor.
[caption id="attachment_37143" align="alignnone" width="512"]
Figure 3. Profiles of discrete sample oxygen and CTD rosette-mounted oxygen observations at the time of bottle closure for comparison.[/caption]
Note that target asset names for the Pioneer NES array may differ slightly between cruises. For example, “CNSM” (used in Fall 2021) and “CN” (used in Spring 2021) refer to the same station location. Discrete README files within the BCO-DMO dataset and CTD Cast Logs on OOI’s Raw Data Archive can provide useful information to help identify relevant samples.
Figure 4 highlights additional seasonal insights offered by the Pioneer NES dataset through biannual research cruises, usually in the Spring and Fall of each year. The CTD temperature observations at bottle depths show strong seasonal variability as the surface layer transitions from stratified to well-mixed. A similar but more subtle signal also appears below 60 meters. The discrete water sample properties captured during Pioneer NES cruises constitute a long-term record of seasonal changes in water mass properties on the shelf and slope.
[caption id="attachment_37144" align="alignnone" width="512"]
Figure 4. Hovmöller diagram of seasonal mean sea water temperature in the upper 150 meters of the water column surrounding the array.[/caption]
For additional Python scripts to explore OOI Discrete CTD and Water Sampling Cruise Data as distributed by BCO-DMO, see the Jupyter notebooks available in this GitHub repository: https://github.com/WHOIGit/ooi-on-bco-dmo/tree/main/notebooks.
Read MoreEmpowering Ocean Research: The Evolution of the OOI Data Center at Oregon State University
Written by Craig Risien, OOI Data Center Program Manager, and reviewed by Jack Barth, DC Principal Investigator
Oregon State University (OSU) in collaboration with Dell Technologies, has led the development and operation of the Ocean Observatories Initiative (OOI) Data Center since 2021. This facility serves as the backbone of OOI, supporting the collection, management and distribution of scientific data from across the OOI network.
Working closely with Dell Technologies, OSU built and configured the OOI 2.0 Data Center – a secure, scalable, and modern computing environment that become the official system of record on July 30, 2021. The transition from Rutgers University was completed without any downtime or disruption to services. Since then, the OSU team has maintained continuous operations with zero unplanned outages.
In 2025, OSU and Dell Technologies completed a major upgrade, launching the OOI 2.5 Data Center. This refresh doubled the data storage capacity, increased the network speeds by a factor of four, and greatly expanded the compute capacity, ensuring that OOI can continue to meet the growing demands of ocean data processing and delivery. The upgrade also significantly enhanced OOI’s cybersecurity by partnering with the National Science Foundation (NSF) funded Texas Advanced Computing Center (TACC), which provides a geographically remote, immutable backup of all OOI scientific data. The transition from OOI 2.0 to 2.5 was completely in Spring 2024.
Today, the OOI Data Center manages approximately 3.3 petabytes (PB) of data and distributes over 200 terabytes (TB) of data each year in response to more than 50 million data requests.
To simplify user access, the Data Center adopted CILogon, an NSF and Department of Energy (DOE) supported identity management system. This allows users to securely log in with credentials from their home institutions or identity providers such as ORCID, removing the need for multiple accounts.
OOI’s cybersecurity program continues to grow under the guidance of Trusted CI, the NSF Cybersecurity Center of Excellence. In 2022, the Data Center joined the first Trusted CI framework assessment cohort. In 2023, it became a member of the Trusted CI Research Infrastructure Security Community (RISC). In 2024, the team completed a framework reassessment alongside three other NSF Major Facilities, reaffirming its leadership position in cybersecurity.
The Data Center also offers a JupyterHub environment that givers researchers and students direct access to OOI data with no downloads required. This free resource supports Python, R, and MATLAB and includes NVIDIA GPUs for AI and machine learning work. JupyterHub has supported multiple community activities, including the 2023 Bio-optics Sensors and 2025 Acoustics OOIFB Summer Schools, the 2025 Imaging FlowCytobot (IFCB) Workshop, and numerous undergraduate courses, helping researchers and educators explore OOI data more efficiently.
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Credit: Oregon State University (OSU)[/caption]
Read More UW researcher launches new technology for underwater acoustics
Earlier this month, a UW researcher deployed fiber optic cables — which are cables used to rapidly transmit audio and video data — into the Puget Sound, opening the floor for innovative research into marine mammals.
The fiber optic cable system was developed in the UW Ocean Data Lab, run by professor Shima Abadi. Abadi’s research focuses on passive underwater acoustics in oceanography, or listening for noises in the ocean.
A hydrophone, or underwater microphone, is typically used to record acoustics. The Ocean Observatories Initiative, a project funded by the National Science Foundation, has recorded underwater data for 10 years to observe long term trends in ocean ambient noise in Oregon and Washington. Read more from THEDAILY.
Read MoreThe 2019 marine heatwave at Ocean Station Papa
(Adapted from Kohlman et al., 2024)
Marine Heat Waves (MHW; Hobday et al., 2016) are prolonged periods of extreme ocean sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies. MHWs are typically identified in satellite SST and/or ocean color records; subsurface data and interdisciplinary variables are often lacking. Ocean Station Papa (OSP) provided long-term, interdisciplinary, subsurface data to examine the physical and biochemical characteristics of a MHW in the Northeast Pacific.
MHWs may have multi-faceted causes, as well as impacts on primary production and higher trophic levels. A recent paper by Kohlman et al. (2024) examines the 2019 NE Pacific MHW using gridded satellite SST data and in-situ observations from multiple OSP platforms including the NOAA Pacific Marine Environmental Lab (PMEL) surface mooring, two OOI Flanking Moorings, the Applied Physics Lab (U. Washington) waverider mooring and shipboard samples from OOI and the Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Canada.
The 2019 MHW was identified in satellite SST data, but the Kohlman et al. study also assessed vertical stratification and the subsurface extent of the temperature signal. The PMEL surface mooring provided temperature and salinity (T/S) down to 300 m. The OOI Flanking Moorings extended the T/S data to 1500 m. The resulting composite time series from 2013-2020 is shown in Fig. 1. Both the extended 2013-2015 MHW and the 2019 MHW are identifiable. Subsurface temperature anomalies during 2013-2014 were strongest above the mixed layer depth (MLD). In the winter and spring of 2017, deeper waters (120–300 m) remained anomalously warm. This anomaly persisted into 2018 due to strong stratification from a fresher surface layer. During the 2019 MHW, anomalously warm waters extended down to 1000 m, whereas the 2013-2015 MHW extended only to about 150 m.
The authors used interdisciplinary data available from Station Papa platforms to assess the drivers and impacts of the 2019 MHW. They found that weaker winds and smaller significant wave height prior to the summer of 2019 created favorable pre-conditioning in the form of an unusually shallow winter MLD. During the MHW, they found that dissolved inorganic carbon and pCO2 decreased, while pH increased. Shipboard samples indicated a decrease in nutrients and an increase in primary productivity. Finally, they speculated that the increased productivity may have had an impact on higher trophic levels – more blue whale calls were recorded in 2019 at Station Papa than normal for Aug-Sep.
This project shows that the characteristics of MHWs are complex. Sustained, multi-disciplinary, subsurface observations are needed to unravel the drivers, pre-conditioning, characteristics, and impacts of these events. Station Papa, among the longest sustained ocean time series sites, is uniquely suited due to the task due to the collaborative observing effort at the site.
[caption id="attachment_37120" align="alignnone" width="512"] Figure 1. Subsurface temperature anomalies at Staton Papa during 2013-2020. Data from the surface to 300 m are from the PMEL surface mooring. Data below 300 m are from the OOI Flanking Moorings. Anomalies are relative to the 1999-2020 Argo climatology. The density-based mixed layer depth (black) and isothermal depth (purple) are overlaid. From Kohlman et al., 2024.[/caption]
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References:
Hobday, A.J., Alexander, L.V., Perkins, S.E., Smale, D.A., Straub, S.C., Oliver, E.C.J., et al. (2016). A hierarchical approach to defining marine heatwaves. Prog. Oceanog., 141(0079–6611), 227–238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2015.12.014.
Kohlman, C., Cronin, M.F., Dziak, R., Mellinger, D.K., Sutton, A., Galbraith, M., et al. (2024). The 2019 marine heatwave at Ocean Station Papa: A multi‐disciplinary assessment of ocean conditions and impacts on marine ecosystems. J. Geophys. Res., 129, e2023JC020167. https://doi.org/10.1029/2023JC020167.
Read MoreSubmarine canyon sediment transport and accumulation during sea level highstand: Interactive seasonal regimes in the head of Astoria Canyon, WA
Lahr et al. (2025) use in-situ hydrodynamic data from a benthic tripod deployment in the head of Astoria Canyon to show that sediment resuspension and transport during summer is driven by internal tides and plume-associated nonlinear internal waves. Observations of shoreward-directed currents and low shear stresses (<0.14 Pa) along with sediment trap data suggest that seasonal loading of the canyon head occurs during summer. Nearby long-term wave data from the OOI Washington Shelf mooring shows that winter storm significant wave height often exceeds 10 m, driving shear stress capable of resuspending all grain sizes present within the canyon head. Swell events are generally concurrent with downwelling flows, providing a mechanism for episodic downcanyon sediment flux. This study indicates that canyon heads can continue to function as sites of sediment winnowing and bottom boundary layer export even with a detached, shelf-depth canyon head.
As part of this study, Lahr et al. (2025), used data from the OOI Washington Shelf Surface Mooring located 81 km north of the tripod site in Astoria Canyon. The 2019 benthic tripod deployment by Ogston was done as an ancillary activity on the Endurance 11B cruise aboard R/V Oceanus. The data used were concurrent spectral surface wave and meteorological data near bed current velocity for 2016 (chosen for its complete records). Figure xx shows the benthic tripod stress overlaid with the OOI Washington shelf mooring stress. Over the summer, the benthic tripod stress and OOI estimated stress compare well. Winter stresses (available from OOI mooring only) are much larger than those observed in summer.
[caption id="attachment_37116" align="alignnone" width="277"] Figure 1. Shear stress computed from the Astoria Canyon tripod deployment (black) and the OOI Shelf mooring (gray). Panels a) and b) depict relative stress contributions from waves and currents respectively, c) the distribution of total stresses, and d) maximum shear stresses from summer and winter on a Shields diagram. (Figure 3, Lahr et al., 2025)[/caption]
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Reference:
Lahr, E.J., A.S. Ogston, J.C. Hill, H.E. Glover, and K.J. Rosenberger (2025). Submarine canyon sediment transport and accumulation during sea level highstand: Interactive seasonal regimes in the head of Astoria Canyon, WA. Marine Geology, no. (2025): 107516. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025322725000416.
Read MoreRCA Broadband Provides First Report of Tremor-Like Signals Offshore Cascadia
The recent publication “Possible Shallow Tectonic Tremor Signals Near the Deformation Front in Central Cascadia” (Krauss et al., 2025) presents the first report of tectonic tremor-like signals offshore Cascadia. As described by the authors, deep slow-slip events in Cascadia—lasting from hours to weeks—have been documented by land-based stations for decades. These events can accommodate a significant portion of overall plate motion and may serve as precursors to megathrust earthquakes. Over the past two decades, significant tectonic tremor activity (1–10 Hz) has been observed as a feature of slow slip every 10.5–15.5 months beneath Vancouver Island to northern Oregon (Bombardier et al. 2024), with annual slip events equivalent to a magnitude ~6.5 earthquake. These typically occur well inland, at depths of approximately 30–40 km. Contrastingly, it is unknown whether slow-slip events and accompanying tectonic tremor occur at shallow subduction depths in the offshore region.
Krauss et al. (2025) analyzed data collected 2015-2024 from buried ocean-bottom seismometers (OBS) at two sites: Slope Base (2,920 m depth), located 5 km seaward of the deformation front, and Southern Hydrate Ridge (790 m depth), approximately 20 km landward. The analysis incorporated in-situ bottom current data. After applying short- and long-term averaging techniques, the study identified 85,000 signals at Slope Base and 30,055 at Southern Hydrate Ridge, encompassing T-phase events, ship noise, and tectonic tremor-like signals. Notably, tectonic tremor-like signals were observed exclusively at Slope Base.
These signals cannot be attributed to ship traffic or environmental noise. Instead, they are hypothesized to originate from slow slip on one of many nearby tectonic structures: the décollement fault, faults near the subduction zone front and outermost accretionary wedge, faults on the incoming Juan de Fuca Plate, or nearby strike-slip structures such as the Alvin Canyon Fault. However, without additional observations of these signals on multiple stations, it is unclear whether they are tectonic or represent another signal altogether.
Future deployments, such as those planned through the Cascadia Offshore Subduction Zone Observatory (COSZO) will improve our ability to pinpoint the sources of these offshore tremors. The full dataset and results are available on GitHub (https://github.com/zoekrauss/obs_tremor) and archived on Zenodo (https://zenodo.org/records/14532861).
[caption id="attachment_37111" align="alignnone" width="512"] Figure 1. a) Location of the Regional Cabled Array cabled broadband seismometers (OBS’s -cyan triangles) offshore Newport Oregon and an autonomous instrument (purple triangle), earthquakes (pink circles) and along and just offshore the Cascadia Margin. b) sustained tremor-like signals from the broadband at Slope Base. c) Subsurface structure across strike of the margin showing location of Slope Base and Southern Hydrate Ridge OBS’s, accretionary margin faults and demarcation of a boundary interpreted to be a protothrust between the sedimentary column and the incoming Juan de Fuca Plate crust.[/caption]
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References:
Krauss, Z., Wilcock, W.D.S., and Creager, K.C. (2025) Possible shallow tectonic tremor signals near the deformation front in Central Caldera. Seismica, https://seismica.library.mcgill.ca/article/view/1540.
Bombardier, M., Cassidy, J.F., Dosso, S.E., and K. Honn (2024) Spatial distribution of tremor episodes from long-term monitoring in the northern Cascadia Subduction Zone. Journal of Geophysical Research, https://doi.org/10.1029/2024JB029159.
Read MoreOOI Contributions Featured at 2025 Slocum Glider User’s Conference & Sentinel Launch
The global oceanographic community gathered in Woods Hole October 7–9 for the 2025 Slocum Glider User’s Conference. The meeting convened users, scientists, engineers, and mission planners to advance next-generation autonomous ocean observing.
For OOI, the event provided a timely forum to share nearly a decade of experience integrating Slocum gliders into sustained, basin-scale observing. OOI has deployed Slocums to collect high-resolution profiles of temperature, salinity, oxygen, chlorophyll, nitrate, optical properties, and currents across energetic and climatically sensitive regions. These long records (gathered in all seasons and weather) have supported research on boundary currents, carbon cycling, marine heatwaves, ecosystem change, and storm-ocean interaction.
The OOI Team presented two posters at the conference, one documenting eight years of glider operations at the OOI Pioneer New England Shelf Array and the other describing the operational approach and initial outcomes from the Pioneer Mid-Atlantic Bight Array, which was started in April 2004. Diana Wickman presented a talk on “Tips, Tricks and Best Practices” for long-duration glider missions, an area where OOI has unique expertise.
The conference week concluded with the October 10 launch of the Sentinel Mission, the first attempt to autonomously circumnavigate the globe by AUV, using REDWING, a Slocum Sentinel Glider.
[caption id="attachment_37105" align="alignnone" width="2560"]
Diana Wickman (WHOI) gives a tour of the Glider Lab at LOSOS. © Andy Robinson / WHOI[/caption]
[caption id="attachment_37106" align="alignnone" width="2560"] Tour of the Glider Lab at LOSOS. © Andy Robinson / WHOI[/caption]
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Peter de Menocal (WHOI) speaks at Sentinel Mission Launch event. © Amber Coogan / WHOI[/caption]
PAMPortal Highlights OOI Acoustic Data
OOI data are now featured in PAMPortal, a new cloud-based tool that makes it easier for researchers to explore acoustic detections and soundscape metrics. PAMPortal integrates the passive acoustic analysis workflow using PAMGuard and PAMpal as part of its internal processing services (rather than as general public support tool for independent PAMGuard or PAMpal processing). This setup allows users to engage directly with marine mammal detection products and acoustic summaries.
For the OOI community, this connection is especially exciting. The tool’s built-in example dataset is drawn from OOI acoustic data. By selecting “Use Example Data,” users will see an informational card that acknowledges OOI and links to additional resources, providing a clear entry point into OOI’s rich acoustic archive.
By presenting OOI data in an accessible, interactive format, PAMPortal aims to make it easier to work with complex acoustic datasets and encourages broader use of OOI resources in research and discovery.
Wave Energy Converter Project Moves Toward At-Sea Testing
OOI, in partnership with the U.S. Department of Energy’s (DOE’s) Water Power Technologies Office (WPTO) is preparing to deploy a wave energy converter (WEC) device on the Pioneer MAB central surface mooring. The project aims to demonstrate how wave energy can provide reliable, renewable power for sustained ocean observation.
A recent visit brought together the team, which is comprised of experts from OOI, WPTO, Sandia National Laboratories, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), Evergreen Innovations, Johns Hopkins University, East Carolina University, and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI) to focus on engineering validation for the Pioneer WEC, a critical step before at-sea testing later in the fall.
During the visit, the team carried out subsystem testing, integrated the WEC with the buoy, assembled the full system, and tested it under varied scenarios. This rigorous preparation is crucial for de-risking the upcoming deployment.
This project represents an important step toward persistent ocean observing systems. By reducing reliance on ship-based servicing and enabling longer-term autonomous operation, wave energy has the potential to transform how sustained ocean science is conducted.
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Taylor Mankle, NREL, and Johannes Spinneken, Evergreen Innovations, inspect the WEC housing installed in the buoy base. © Amber Coogan, WHOI[/caption]
[caption id="attachment_37037" align="alignnone" width="2560"]
Joshua Bauer, NREL, captures still images for a 360° photographic reconstruction of WEC. © Ken Kostel, WHOI[/caption]
[caption id="attachment_37038" align="alignnone" width="2560"]
Joshua Bauer, NREL; Taylor Mankle, NREL; Meghan Donohue, WHOI; and Alex Franks, WHOI, install the WEC system into its watertight housing. © Ken Kostel, WHOI[/caption]
Read More OOI Community Status Update
Dear OOI Community,
We want to share with you important updates about the Ocean Observatories Initiative (OOI) for the upcoming year. The U.S. National Science Foundation’s (NSF) FY2026 budget request proposes a reduction in funding for OOI. While this is not final given the ongoing congressional appropriations process, it is important to share with the community the potential impact to operations starting in October 2025.
Since its inception, the OOI has been a cornerstone of sustained ocean observation – designed as a 30-year program to provide transformative science and open-access data. Now entering its tenth year, the OOI has grown into an important community resource that supports discovery, advances research, facilitates technology development, and fosters collaboration across the ocean community. Our commitment remains to ensure continuity of operations, manage this essential resource, and sustain the research and innovation it enables.
Despite the budget uncertainty, the OOI Leadership team’s commitment remains strong. We will continue to keep you informed as the congressional appropriations and agency implementation process unfolds and will share more details as they become available. We are actively working with NSF to explore strategies for long-term stability that secure the observatory’s future. In parallel, we are seeking new partnerships and opportunities to broaden support and strengthen the program’s foundation. We continue to encourage research proposals to use the present and historical OOI observations, and when appropriate leverage in-water assets.
If the president’s budget hold results in reduced NSF funding, we remain committed to maintaining core capabilities that safeguard high-value observations and ensure community access.
- Providing data delivery and distribution from all active instruments, including real-time data where enabled, and data from the past ten years of deployments from our Data Center.
- Operating the Regional Cabled Array (RCA) infrastructure to ensure continued access to the seafloor and a reduced set of water-column data from the deep ocean.
- Operating a scaled-down Pioneer Mid-Atlantic Bight Array with two service cruises and refurbished infrastructure this upcoming year.
- Continuing to provide data from the currently deployed infrastructure at Station Papa and the Irminger Sea Array. The Global Arrays are being operated at reduced sampling to extend their lifetime for the upcoming year.
- Maintaining limited Endurance Array capability by operating the Newport line deep glider during October and November 2025 and leaving the Oregon Shelf mooring in the water until spring 2026 (these activities are exceptions to the broader suspension of Endurance operations planned after Fall 2025 asset recovery).
- Continuing investments in OOI Data Services, including improvements to the Data Explorer and data processing tools.
- Meeting critical obligations such as permitting, reporting, and cybersecurity improvements.
To align with the potentially reduced budget in FY 2026, OOI operations will be scaled back in several areas. This includes the suspension of operation of the Endurance Array after asset recovery in Fall 2025, with the exception of operating the Newport line deep glider during October and November 2025 and leaving the Oregon Shelf mooring in the water until spring 2026; reduction or suspension of the glider and AUV operations; and suspension of the maintenance cruises for the global and cabled arrays in the upcoming project year.
We recognize these potential changes could disrupt coverage and continuity, particularly for studies that depend on near real-time data, cross-shelf observations, and sustained time series. Collaborations with partner institutions and contributions to regional observing networks may also be affected.
At the same time, the OOI remains committed to serving the community by preserving as much scientific capability as possible within the available funding.
In closing, we encourage you to actively highlight the value and impact of OOI by including it in your proposals, publications, presentations, and conversations with colleagues. Your engagement is vital to demonstrate the scientific impact and wide-ranging applications enabled by the OOI, underscoring its importance as a resource for the oceanographic community.
For any questions related to the OOI, please reach out to the Leadership Team at ooi@whoi.edu.
Sincerely,
The OOI Team
Disclaimer: Any opinions, findings and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation
